The history of German-speaking exile in Southern California would be incomplete without reference to the conservative German-language press, the activities of the German Consulate in Los Angeles between and , and the various rallies of the American Nazi party in Los Angeles County. While its realism is saturated with the urban symbolism of classic noir, particularly its downtown sequence, Act of Violence introduces an overtly social critique that transcends the more timeless, immanent realm of noir. On the question of German guilt Mann assumed a nuanced position that set him apart from writers like Emil Ludwig, who insisted that there is only one German character, which is militaristic, arrogant, and aggressive and that the German nation has incurred a Kollektivschuld collective guilt ; and from those like Brecht, who believed in two Germanies, arguing that Nazi Germany ought not be confused with the rest of the German people and should therefore not be persecuted wholesale a controversy that came to a head between Brecht and Mann in August at the house of Salka Viertel. This is one of the reasons I C The background must show more than the immediate surroundings.
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